1. History of Mohenjo-Daro
### Overview of Mohenjo-Daro
**Location:**
- Situated in the Sindh province of Pakistan, near the Indus River.
**Period:**
- Flourished around 2500 BCE during the height of the Indus Valley Civilization.
- Abandoned around 1900 BCE.
### Discovery and Excavation
**Rediscovery:**
- Mohenjo-Daro was rediscovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.
- Major excavations were carried out in the 1920s and 1930s under the direction of Sir John Marshall.
**Excavation Findings:**
- The site covers an area of about 300 hectares.
- The city was divided into two main parts: the Citadel and the Lower Town.
- **Citadel:** A raised area that housed important buildings and possibly religious and administrative functions.
- **Lower Town:** Comprised residential and commercial areas.
### Urban Planning and Architecture
**Urban Layout:**
- Mohenjo-Daro showcases advanced urban planning with a grid layout, something remarkable for its time.
- Streets were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
**Architecture:**
- Buildings were constructed with baked bricks, demonstrating sophisticated construction techniques.
- Notable structures include:
- **The Great Bath:** A large, public bathing area, suggesting the importance of ritualistic cleansing.
- **Granaries:** Indicating storage of surplus grain, which points to an organized economy.
- **Residential Buildings:** Multi-storied houses with courtyards, wells, and intricate drainage systems.
### Society and Culture
**Social Structure:**
- The uniformity in housing suggests a relatively egalitarian society with no marked differences in wealth.
- The presence of granaries and public buildings indicates a degree of centralized planning and control.
**Trade and Economy:**
- Mohenjo-Daro was part of a vast trade network, with evidence of trade links extending to Mesopotamia, Persia, and other regions.
- Artifacts such as seals, beads, and pottery have been found, indicating a rich material culture.
**Language and Script:**
- The Indus script remains undeciphered, but numerous seals and pottery shards bearing inscriptions have been found, suggesting a developed form of written communication.
### Decline and Abandonment
**Decline:**
- The exact reasons for the decline of Mohenjo-Daro are not fully understood, but several theories exist, including climatic changes, decline in trade, and possible invasions.
**Abandonment:**
- The city was gradually abandoned around 1900 BCE.
- Subsequent flooding of the Indus River might have contributed to its abandonment and the covering of the site by layers of silt.
### Modern Significance
**UNESCO World Heritage Site:**
- Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980, recognizing its significance as one of the world's earliest major urban centers.
**Conservation Efforts:**
- Efforts are ongoing to preserve the site, which faces threats from erosion, groundwater salinity, and improper restoration techniques.
### Conclusion
Mohenjo-Daro stands as a testament to the ingenuity and sophistication of the Indus Valley Civilization. Its rediscovery has provided invaluable insights into early urban planning, social organization, and cultural practices. Despite the mysteries that still surround it, Mohenjo-Daro continues to capture the imagination of historians, archaeologists, and visitors alike.
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